DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESSES AND PERIODS IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT

Each of us develops in certain ways like all other individuals, like some other individuals, and like no other individuals. Most of the time, our attention is directed to a person's uniqueness, but psychologists who study development are drawn to ours hared characteristics as well as what makes us unique. As humans, we all have traveled some common paths. Each of us-Leonardo da Vinci, Joan of Arc, George Washington, Martin Luther King, Jr., and you walked at about the age of 1, engaged in fantasy play as a young child, and became more independent as a youth What shapes this common path of human development, and what are its milestones?

Biological, Cognitive, and Socioemotional Processes

The pattern of human development is created by the interplay of several processes biological cognitive, and socioemotional. 

Biological processes produce changes in an individual's body. Genes inherited from parents, the development of the brain, height and weight gains, motor skills, and the hormonal changes of puberty all reflect the role of biological processes in development.

Cognitive processes refer to changes in an individual's thought, intelligence, and language. The tasks of watching a mobile swinging above a crib, putting together a two-word sentence, memorizing a poem, solving a math problem, and imagining what it would be like to be a movie star all involve cognitive processes.

Socioemotional processes involve changes in an individual's relationships with other people, changes in emotions, and changes in personality. An infant's smile in response to her mother's touch, a young boy's attack on a playmate, a girl's development of assertiveness, and an adolescent's joy at the senior prom all reflect socioemotional development.

       Biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes are intricately intertwined. Consider a baby smiling in response to its mother's touch. Even this simple response depends on biological processes (the physical nature of the touch and responsiveness to it), cognitive processes (the ability to understand intentional acts), and socioemotional processes (smiling often reflects positive emotion and smiling helps to connect infants with other human beings).

Periods of Development

For the purposes of organization and understanding, a child's development is commonly described in terms of periods, which are given approximate age ranges. The most widely used classification of developmental periods describes a child's development in terms of the following sequence: the prenatal period, infancy, early childhood, middle and late childhood, and adolescence.
       The prenatal period is the time from conception to birth, roughly a nine-month period. During this amazing time a single cell grows into an organism, complete with a brain and behavioral capabilities.

Infancy is the developmental period that extends from birth to about 18 to 24 months of age. Infancy is a time of extreme dependence on adults. Many psychological activities are just beginning--the ability to speak, to coordinate sensations and physical actions to think with symbols, and to imitate and learn from others.

Early childhood is the developmental period that extends from the end of infancy to about 5 to 6 years of age; sometimes this period is called the preschool years. During this time, young children learn to become more self-sufficient and to care for themselves, they develop school readiness skills (following instructions, identifying letters), and they spend many hours in play and with peers. First grade typically marks the end of this period.

Middle and late childhood is the developmental period that extends from about 6 to 11 years of age; sometimes this period is referred to as the elementary school years. Children master the fundamental skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic, and they are formally exposed to the larger world and its culture. Achievement becomes a more central theme of the child's world, and self-control increases.

Adolescence is the developmental period of transition from childhood to early adulthood, entered at approximately 10 to 12 years of age and ending at 18 to 22 years of age. Adolescence begins with rapid physical changes dramatic gains in height and weight; changes in body contour; and the development of sexual characteristics such as enlargement of the breasts, development of pubic and facial hair, and deepening of the voice. The pursuit of independence and an identity are prominent features of this period of development. More and more time is spent outside of the family. Thought becomes more abstract, idealistic and logical.

        Today, developmentalists do not believe that change ends with adolescence. They describe development as a lifelong process. However, the purpose of this text is to describe the changes in development that take place from conception through adolescence. 

kkbhagat May 27, 2020

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Observation method in Psychology

Observation in General psychology

A hungry cat was put in a cage with food outside to determine how the cat learnt to come out of the cage. As the cat was hungry it tried to come out of the cage. Sometimes it tried to break the bars and other times it fought with the door. Thus after trying for a long times it pressed, by chance, the button and thereby opened the door and came out. Now the cat was again put in the cage and it again tried to come out of it. This time it took less times to open it. This process was repeated again and again, and every time the cat took less time to come out of it till it mastered the trick to press the button and to open the cage. In this process it was clearly seen that there was a gradual elimination of the chances of error. The cat began its act blindly and by change arrived at the successful action. This successful action was led by several right reactions. Gradually, the wrong reactions were eliminated and right ones established so that the cat learnt the trick to come out of the cage. Thus it was concluded that the cat learnt through the method of trial and error. This conclusion was drawn through the observation of the cat's behaviour.

Observation in Child psychology

Every one knows that a bad environment had bad effect on the child. This, however, cannot be determined by actually placing a child in a bad environment. Which environmental factor effects evil character in the child, cannot be determined by placing him under the influence of the factor. Hence, experimental method cannot work in this case. The child himself cannot be asked about his experience in a certain environment because he cannot analyse his own experiences. Hence the introspection method is also useless. Thus in cases like this in child psychology, it is only the observation method which can be helpful. The effect of the absence of parents on the child's development of can be ditermined only through the observation of the development of orphans.

Observation in Social psychology

Every society has got some taboos regarding the sex behaviour. The taboosi Influence the development of males and females in a particular society. What shall be the influence of human development if all these taboos are removed ? This cannot be known by actually abolishing all the taboos since that will lead to disorganisation of society. This phenomena can be examined only by observation of the development of persons in the societies where there are very few or almost no taboos on sex activities. Similarly, facts regarding an insane and mentally abnormal person cannot be determined either by introspection or through experiment. In such cases it is the method of observation alone which is serviceable.

Steps in observation method

The above mentioned examples regarding the observation method exhibits some of its particular traits, Roughly speaking, variouss steps in the method of observation are as follows:

(1) Observation of behaviour - The first step in observation method is the observation of behaviour. Observation literally means the examination or perception of some behaviour or processes. In observation every thing or phenomenon is directly perceived, e.g, the psychologist perceives the behaviour of the animals. If someone has to study the social behaviour of monkeys, he should go where the monkeys are assembled and observe their behaviour.

(2) Noting of behaviour - Observation in psychology is a scientific method. Here it is not sufficient to perceive a certain behaviour and to remember it. The observation, on the other hand, should be carefully noted down. In the example of the study of the social behaviour of the monkeys, the observer should carefully note down their various activities.

(3) Interpretation and analysis of behaviour - The third step in the method of observation is the interpretation and analysis of behaviour. If the behaviour is noted, it can be analysed at rest and the causes underlying it can be clarified. The movements of hands and legs, the sound, the gestures and other external activities express the internal condition of the person. In the case of animals their mental conditions are inferred from their external activities. The basis of this interference is not the experience of the psychologist himself, but the behaviour of other animals and his own insight into animal psychology Thus the behaviour is interpreted on the basis of analysis and inference.

(4) Generalisation - The fourth step in observation method is generalisation. Scientific principles are based upon generalisation. Psychology is a science,hence its principles are also of the same nature. In observation as a method of psychology, the purpose is to find out general principles. In the example of the social behaviour of monkeys, various psychologists will observe their behaviour, note it, analyse it, interpret it and finally find out general principles through generalisation.

Difficulties in this method

Like other methods of psychology, the observation method has also some defects or difficulties. The main difficulties are as follows:

(1) influence of personal interest - In the observation method the psychologist himself observes, hence it is more likely that his personal interest should also influence his observation. In the example of the observation of the social behaviour in monkeys, if a psychologist has an excessive interest in sex behaviour, he will mainly attend to their sex activities and conceive them as more general than they actually are. Along with observation the personal interest also influences his interpretation. An excessively sexual person often interprets non-sexual behaviour of others as sexual. A wicked man find some wicked purpose even behind the sympatheticn action of others. A religious man would interpret even the sexual behaviour of others as pure and religious. Thus the behaviour is interpreted wrongly due to personal interests and attitudes. In the study of child, insane and the mentally abnormal person, this difficulty is very much observed, because there is much difference in the mental activities of these persons and those of the psychologists.

     The above mentioned difficulty in observation method is undoubtedly real, but it can be removed through scientific detachment. The mental conditions of the others can be understood through constructive imagination. It is true that few have scientific detachment and constructive imagination, but these can be developed through long practice and training.

(2) The possibilities of bias - According to the personal views and tendencies of the psychologists, there is a possibility of bias and prejudice in the interpretation of behaviour,e.g., in the countries where prejudices based on colour are largely prevalent, the white psychologists seldom find good or higher traits in the behaviour of black subjects.

Indispensability of this method

But inspite of the above mentioned limitations and difficulties in the method of observation, it is indispensable in psychology. As has already been pointed out, in many cases other methods are entirely useless and only the observation method works. In fact behaviour requires training and practice to observe correctly and accurately. The observer should first analyse his own tendencies and remove pre-conceptions, prejudices, attachments and develop scientific detachment. Many of things will be left without observation in the beginning or will be wrongly observed, but practice will make observation more accurate. It is experience which makes observation scientific. The expert psychologist can train newcomers in observation. The personal bias, prejudice and errors can be removed by comparison of the notes of several psychologists and through mutual discussion.

kkbhagat May 26, 2020

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Case History Method in Psychology

Psychology today is widely used for the cure of various types of abnormalities. The parents as well as the teachers to day seek the guidance from the psychologist in their dealing with the children and students. They complain of the abnormality of the children or students, to the psychologist who with their help finds out the causes and tries to remove them. Thus to-day one finds a flourishing branch of psychology in the form of abnormal psychology. In the Western countries the frequency of nervous diseases is gradually growing as the rush of life is ncreasing with industrialisation and urbanisation. This has increased the necessity of abnormal psychology. Abnormal psychology and psychiatry use a certain method known as case history in their study of abnormal cases. As is clear by the name of the method, in this method the psychologist traces the whole history of the case. The tracing of the history requires not only the statement of history by the patient, but also whatever can be gathered from his relatives. The psychologist interviews all the near relatives of the patient and also his friends. By this interview much is known about the habits, routine thinking, nature etc., besides the various incidents of the life of the patient. This interview also makes the psychologist know the various types of relations which the patient has with different persons Again, the patient is asked to relate his life history so far as he can remember. He is also asked to relate his dreams etc and they are interpreted by the psychologist as long as they give an idea about the infantile life of the patient. All the data gathered through the patient as well as those related to him in some way give an outline of the history of his case. By the analysis of this history the psychologist tries to find out the causes of the abnormality. Suppose a child whose behaviour is not normal or who has run away from the school several times, is taken to the psychologist. The child is ill-mannered and bad tempered. He does not bother about punishment on dictacts of the elders. The psychologist interview the parents and other relatives of the child and tries to know his case history. He takes the child with him into a room and sympathetically tries to know vanous thing about his life. In short, be enquires about everything concerning the child and his relations with other. An analysis of all this data gives an idea about the cause of absormality, trancy or bad manners. If the causes are discovered, the parents and teachers are guided accordingly and the malady is removed.

Example of a case history

     An example from the report by Katherine M Mourer known as a Behaviour problem in a Young Child will give an idea as to how the clinical psychologists use the case history method:

The case

            Lousy was 3 years and 9 months She was very obstinate and short tempered. From an interview with her parents it was learnt that the father and mother held each other responsible for bringing up the child as emotional and unbalanced. Then they were interviewed separately. An aunt of Lousy and a nursery teacher were also interviewed. In the interview Lousy's mother described her family back ground. She told that Lousy was born normally and that her mother-in-law did not take part in the household work but remained with Lousy for hours. Lousy had acute constipation. She had occasional fits in which she lay down on the ground, cried and attacked others. Lonsy's mother did not want to disclose her marital adjustment. Her mother in law severely criticised her friends, her household management and her behaviour towards Lousy. 

The facts

          Lous's problem began at the age of 2. At the age of 3 she liked to hear stories instead of playing with the children of her age. While among other children she quarreled with them. She liked to live with her father and go for walks with him, though when angry she did not spare even

her father. Once when her father did not hear her, she bit him in the leg.

          An interview with her father disclosed that he was proud of Lousy. He thought her to be very intelligent and described how Lousy paid attention to him and worked like an adult woman. He expressed doubt in Lousy's happiness and that perhaps she never felt secure.

    A physical examination of Lousy disclosed that except some weight she had no physical abnormality. According to doctor, constipation was due to wrong habits of diel. Sucking the thumbs, biting all the nails and turning the hair was clearly observed. When her father hrough her to the psychologist, she appeared to be attractive, modest and feminine. When her mother brought her she appeared to be abstinate and manageable Sometimes she struggled and quarreled and lay down on the ground and cried when requested by the mother to wear the coal Psychological tests showed that she commanded a vocabulary found in 1 child of 8 years and that she was more intelligent than the average. The powers of language were far more developed than the physical powers. 

The diagonsis
The clinical psychologist came to the following conclusions about Lousy's abnormal behaviour:

   She was a very well developed and brilliant child with an attractive personality. She was used to close attention and company of the adults and her daily routine was extremely unsystematic, resulting in fatigue. This resulted in the absence of harmony in the parent child relationship. She did not get opportunity of adjustment with the children of her age. Her intellect was too much developed because of absence of variety of experience. Her capacity did not develop harmoniously and her word powers were excessively developed beyond motor capacity. She understood her weakness which made her adjustment on child's level still more difficult. She appeared to be an extremely fatigued small child tyrant who did not get emotional contentment from the mother and was emotionally introvert and dependent on her father.

Recommendation of the psychologist
The psychologist mainly recommended the following things for her: 

      Friendly relation with mother should be established and her life at home should be re-organised. She must get more sleep, balanced diet and should play with children of her age. In evening she must be attended by some members of the family mother, father or grandmother. The mother should feel that she is responsible for the progress of the child. But father and mother-in-law were also told that they should change their routine in order to make relation of mother and Lousy better. The child was admitted into a nursery school and arrangements were made between the school and clinic so that she might not be turned out of the school before she could be reformed. In the beginning, Lousy felt it difficult to adjust herself to the nursery school. But after some years, it was found that Lousy was far more brilliant than children of her age in studies as well as scouting etc. But she could not overcome her early weakness which lay in lack of affection for the mother and excessive attachment to daddy. At 15 years of age, she was a beautiful girl who appeared to be very able and behaved with balance. She had no nervous habits. According to her own report her greatest happiness was to work with daddy. The man whom she dreamt to marry was exactly like daddy.

      The example cited above shows very well the problem, the procedure and the work of clinical psychology with the aid of the case history method.

Limitations  of cast history method

         Like other methods in psychology, case history method has also its own difficulties and limitations. One of the limitations is that it is very difficult to know the whole history of any patient and to observe it objectively. It is possible that while relatives are interviewed they may be prejudiced in their answers or try to hide something unpleasant. In the case of the children, it is difficult to know their history through them, because their memory is neither strong nor reliable and the psychologist has to depend upon the reports of the relatives. It is possible that the parents do not observe something about the history of the child which is very important for the case. These and other limitations make it difficult for the clinical psychologist to arrive at a proper diagnosis. In the case of the adults, abnormals etc., however, the psychologist gets the data of their dreams, analyses them and finds out some unconscious causes. He may also ask the patient to explain things about his childhood and tell psychologist his history. The psychologist may question him from time to time and can get much out of his statements. Thus in the case of abnormals, the difficulties are less than those in the case of the child. This, however, does not mean absence of difficulties and limitations which are always there. But in the ultimate analysis the case history method has proved to be very valuable for the diagnosis of mental abnormalities. As a matter of fact it all depends upon the experience and ability of the psychologist as to how far he is able to gather a history and analyse it to find real causes. A psychologist like Sigmund Freud can very well make use of a case history to discover the causes of the most complex type of abnormality.

kkbhagat May 25, 2020

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Introspection method in Psychology

Introspection is one of the most important methods of psychology. The psycho-analysis school has widely utilised this method. But the behaviourists are vehemently opposed to it. Watson, the founder of the school of behaviourism, was absolutely opposed to this method. As he said, "Introspection forms no essential part of its (of psychology) method nor is the scientific value of data dependent upon introspection in terms of consciousnes." This criticism of introspection has however not been accepted by the most of the modern psychologists, Woodworth and others have defended introspection method with laborato argument. But to assess the real value of this particular method and to find out of its limitation, it is necessary to examine is uses and limitations.

Nature of Introspection

To introspect means to look within. Thus introspection is an internal perception. In it the psychologist himself observes his internal activities and process. This method is indispensable in the description of individual experiences, e.g., man goes to see a picture andr returns after seeing it, it is only through introspection thath he can tell others how he feels about it. It is said that the advent of youth changes the behaviour, mental conditions and the psychological processes oft the individual. But how a young man feels is only a matter of introsperion and can be explained only by him who has passed through this site. This in the field of feelings, emotions, sentiments, prejudices and various types of internal experiences, eg. love hate, pleasure pain, fear, memory, thought and effort etc. a man can know them only by introspective analysis No man can know another by the observation of his overt behaviour. The pangs of separation from someone dear to us is not a matter of understanding or logic or observation, but purely of introspection. Thus introspection is indispensable for the study of internal behaviour.

Need of Introspection

Psychology not only studies the covert behaviour, but also the internal processes. It is the science of behaviour. Behaviour, as it is taken today, includes the internal experiences as well. These internal experiences can not be known by external observation. They can be known only through introspection by the subject himself. In introspection the individual himself systematically observes his inner mental processes and feelings. For this purpose the observer cannot take the help of an instrument or the observations of another person. The observer can introspect his mental processes wherever and whenever he likes to do so. Thus the method of introspection has been proved to be very valuable in the field of psychology. Introspection is a unique method of psychology. It is not found in other sciences, physical or social. In spite of what the behaviourists say against it, psychology cannot dispense with introspection.

Limitations  of introspection

Introspection has its own limitations peculiar to itself. Its limitations are as follows:

1. It is truly said that the mental processes can not be directly observed through introspection. But this data cannot be the basis of generalisation since it is not necessary that the experience of other persons should be identical with that of the observer.

2. By introspection one cannot know the experience of others and so cannot compare one's own experience with it. Other's experiences can only be known through observation or experiments. Hence, introspection alone is neither sufficient nor the most important method of psychology, Observations and experiments are definitely more valuable and important methods of psychology.

Difficulties in introspection

        Every method has its own difficulties particular to itself. The method of introspection has also its own difficulties. The following are some of the main difficulties of the method.

(1) It is difficult to attend the mental processes - There is difference between the perception of the object and the observation of the mental processes. The objects are material and concrete while the mental processes are psychic and abstract. Hence, it is not easy to know mental processes. One cannot observe them without much effort and concentration, and concentration is a difficult feal. Thus observation of the mental processes through introspection is a difficult effort.              But this difficulty in introspection is not insurmountable. Introspection undoubtedly requires more concentration and the newcomer has only a few chances of success in it. But this difficulty can be removed by adequate practice and training. As a matter of fact introspection requires long training. Training and practice improves the capacity for abstraction and concentration. It makes introspection more valid.

(2) It is difficult to grasp mental processes - Mental processes are changeable. The thoughts, feeling, desires etc. are constantly changing. But observation requires a fixed object. It is only then that one can easily observe the external objects. But as soon as one attended to the mental process, they disappear. Then how can they be observed? If a psychologist wants to know his mental state in fear, it is likely that the fear may disappear as soon as he looks at it or introspects.
        This difficulty in introspection is really valid to some extent, but it can be removed with the help of memory. In the example of fear it is a fact that it disappears as soon we attend to it, but the feeling, in the state of fear can be recalled with the help of memory and analysis. By practice and sufficient training, even the changing mental processes can be grasped. Besides, various observers can co-ordinate their observation and thus arrive at some general conclusions. A psychologist may introspect his own in the state of fear and other psychologists may also do the same. Now these statements may be gathered together and compared leaving the uncommon clements, and generalisation can be made on the basis of the common findings. Thus memory, mental alertness and the comparison of the changing mental processes during introspection.

(3) Many psychologists cannot study the same mental state - Another difficulty which has been pointed out against introspection is that many psychologists can study similar mental processes but not the same, eg, in the case of fear, every individual psychologist will study only his own personal experience of fear. How can any one arrive at some general principles by different individual psychologists? Such a description will not be the study of fear as a general state but a collection of the experience of fear in different individuals.
     But a careful observation of this difficulty will make it clear that it is right to say that many persons cannot observe the same mental state, but generalisation in science depends on the common clement found in different phenomena of the same species. Uniformity of human psychology is a postulate on which the entire edifice of psychology as a science has been built up. It is a fact that no two men are the same and yet there are laws universally applicable to all human beings. It is for this reason that the results of the experiments done on Germans are equally applicable to Americans. Thus it is clear that the foregoing difficulty is not genuine.

(4) In introspection the mind is divided - Another argument against introspection is that in it the same man is the observer as well as observed and so he is divided into two parts since mind cannot look to itself without such division. It is on the basis of this argument that Comte has rejected introspection as impossible.
       But practically this objection seems to be baseless. In practice we do experience the inner states of fear,curiosity and lust etc. A man says that he feels fear, another says that he feels pain. In both these states, these men are observing their mental process. As a matter of fact, self consciousness is a characteristic of the human mind. We are self-conscious and we know that we are self conscious. This fact may not be proved by logic, but it is amply demonstrated in experience. Direct experience is self-evident and it requires no logical proof for its validity. Just as we can observe things outside us similarly, though not exactly we can observe our internal experience as well. This observation can be

made more exact with practice and training.

(5) It is impossible to observe the object and the mental process at the same time - In introspection sometimes one has to observe a mental state which is the result of some external object. As Stout point out, "If a man observes the object of perception he will have to attend the object of perception as well as the activity of perceiving it." In this situation the difficulty is that if one attends the object, he cannot attend the mental state and vice versa. Hence, introspection is impossible in such situations.
    The argument against introspection method is valid to some extent because mind can attend one thing at a time, but even this difficulty can be removed by certain measures. One way is the rapid oscillation of the attention between the object and the mental state so that both may be observed continually, if not simultaneously. Another way is to attend the object with the aid of memory and to remember the mental state in such attention.

(6) The knowledge of introspection is subjective and personal -- Another argument against introspection is that knowledge gained by it is subjective and personal. Hence the introspective data cannot be the basis of scientific principles. This difficulty, however can be removed on the one hand by training and practice and on the other by collaboration of different psychologists in a
particular study. These efforts will remove the subjective and personal elements from psychological data. The critical analysis of the different difficulties pointed out against introspection make it amply clear that it is a useful method in psychology and can be made still more useful. But this should make one forget the limitations of this method. In many situations introspection method is entirely useless, e.g., in the study of the psychology of the children, insane and abnormal, patients and animals, the method of introspection cannot be used. It is clear that here other methods, particularly those of observation and experiment are useful. Introspection is an indispensable method in psychology, but modern psychology uses it only sparingly since its results are not so exact and verifiable as those gained by other methods. The method of introspection has its own limits and is less factual than others. But not only from the historical point of view,from the practical point of view also,introspection method cannot be eliminated from the field of psychology. Its value stands unquestioned in its own field.

kkbhagat May 24, 2020

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Importance of Psychology

To have a view of the importance of psychology, a brief survey of its contribution in different fields of human life is helpful.

(1) Education - Psychology has made radical reforms in the field of education and revolutionised the syllabi and methods of education. The rule of cane has been substituted by psychological methods of persuation, encouragement and sympathy ctc. Thus psychology has made education more natural, easy and useful. It has helped in the all round development of the education and in sweet relation between the teacher and the taught.

(2) Crime Detection and Justice - Psychology has been very helpful in understanding the causes of crimes and also their cures. In modern states, steps have been taken to reform the cirminals and to restore them to the society by removing the psychological causes of crimes. It is due to the influence of psychology that one finds new experiments in the field of criminology e.g. probation, reformatories, borstal schools, open air jails etc. Psychology has made it clear that the ciriminal alone is not responsible for his crimes, but much of the responsibility rests with his social situations as well. This has changed our attitude towards the criminal. In the present theory of punishment, revenge has been substituted by reform. Separate arrangements have been made for the juvenile delinquents and juvenile delinquency has become a separate study. Psychology has helped the judges to distinguish criminals from noncriminals and to devise suitable punishment in various cases. Thus in the field of justice as well as of crime detection, the study of psychology is gradually proving more and more helpful.

(3) Cure of abnormal diseases - Psychology has proved very valuable in the medicine. According to present day psychology, every somatic disease is psychological and hence requires not only physical but also psychological treatment. According to Brown, the author of the Psycho Dynamics of Abnormal Behaviour, every man stands in need of periodical psychological check up. It has been found that 10% of the population in America at one time or another suffers from some serious type of mental disease. According to an estimate 45% of American colleges under graduates require the services of mental hygienist. Roughly, it can be said without exaggeration that almost every man needs the guidance of the clinical psychologist at some times or the other to keep his mental health. The psychologist has been instrumental in removing the chains of the insanes in asylums. The insanes today are no more treated as sinners, But sympathised with those who have failed to accommodate themselves to their circumstances. Thus psychology has removed a lot of supertitions about the mental diseases and also helped in their cures.

(4) Industry and Trade - One of the most important factors in modern trade is advertisement and it is here that one finds widest application of psychology. Psychology studies the interests and reactions and helps the industrialists to manufacture according to tastes. Psychology has made selling an art, if not a science. It has helped in the solution of the industrial disputes, the problems of strikes and lock-outs and all other problems between millowners and labourers.

(5) Recruitment in Services - Psychology has helped the employers in finding out suitable men for different kinds of work. It has helped the employee to secure work suited to his capacities and talents. It has helped in minimising the fatigue and using human capacites with utmost efficiency. It is due to the advice of the psychologist that one finds numerous schemes of labour welfare in modern countries.

(6) Human Relations - Psychology has been instrumental in bringing about adjustment in society. It has enabled men to understand each other and thus to improve their relations. Thus it has helped the sociologists and the social reformers to solve various problems of society.

(7) The solution of personal problems - Psychology has not only helped in the solution of the social problems, but also in that of the problems of the individual. Psychology makes man understand himself. Self understanding is the way to self-control. Selfcontrol help one in future progress. Again, psychology has removed many superstitions regarding various phenomena in human psychology e.g., the meaning of dreams, day dreams and various abnormal phenomena etc. Psychology has helped man to form his character, to change his habits, to control his conduct and finally to adjust himself to new situations. It has warned him against dangerous activities and showed him the way to intergral development of his personality.

(8) Help in the understanding of others - Just as psychology helps in the understanding of oneself, so it leads one to the understanding of others. It removes prejudices and eliminates hatred, because one can understand the causes of differences in behaviour. Thus psychology has been helpful in all types of primary and secondary relation e.g., family, clubs, schools, colleges, play grounds etc. Psychology helps the parents to understand the child and the teacher to understand the taught. It helps in maintaining harmony between husband and wife, friends and lovers. In brief, psychology helps in the understanding of every type of human relation and solving its difficulties.

(9) Solution of political difficulties -- Psychology has been widely appliedi in the political field. Social psychology has helped the leaders to understand the masses and control them. A Government which rules in defiance of the psychology of the public cannot stay long. Hence modern democratic Government have a keen eye on different tendencies in the public. A democratic Government is formed by the people's representatives. These representatives are elected by the masses. Modern election depends upon the success of propaganda and the success of propaganda depends upon its psychological appeal. Thus modern politics very much depends upon psychology, Legislation, unless based upon psychological principles has scant chances of success. Even the reforms should be devised according to the psychology of the public. The administrator, without the knowledge of psychology, shall be a complete failure. History is a witness to the fact that the great rulers have always been masters of human psychology. Thus in every branch of Government and politics the knowledge of psychology has been valuable.

(10) Uses in war time - In the times of war, the value of psychology becomes even more. The cold wars almost entirely depend upon psychological propaganda. Victory in war depends as much on self confidence as on equipment. Psychology maintains the self confidence in the army. It also helps in the recruitment of different men for different posts in navy, air and land forces. In the time of war the leaders are chosen according to their psychological insight and influence on the masses. In the time of an attack by the enemy the reactions of the public are observed and confidence is maintained with the help of psychological suggestions. The art of diplomacy very much depends upon the knowledge of psychological facts.

(11) World Peace - Not only in the time of war, but also in the time of peace psychology has its own importance. The problem of peace is in fact the problem of human adjustment. The world peace depends upon the adjustment of men and women of different nationalities to one another. It is here that psychology plays a vital role. The knowledge of individual differences helps persons of different nationalities to understand one another. It helps to realise ideal fraternity among men. It helps in the understanding of aggressive tendencies, their control as well as in finding suitable outlets for them. The realisation of the cherished idea of world peace depends to a great extent upon finding suitable outlets of the various tendencies in men and women.

         Thus in the ultimate analysis, one finds that psychology has its uses in every field of human relations. It helps us in under standing ourselves and others and control the harmful tendencies. It improves the individual behaviour, makes for social adjustments and removes conflicts and frustrations. Of all the differents sciences which man has discovered so far, psychology is undoubtedly one of the most useful science for the realisation of human ideal of world peace.

kkbhagat May 24, 2020

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Uses of Psychology

The uses of psychology are as wide as the field of its theoretical study. The study of psychology has proved very valuable in different fields of human activities. It has helped nol only the individual but also the institutions and associations to secure better adjustment to the situation. It has changed man's approach towards life and world. With the help of psychology, man to day is able to control many phenomena, which were out of his hold previously, Psychology has helped man to understand himself. It has also helped him to understand his fellow-beings. The study of individual differences has made the individual more liberal, catholic and sobre in his behaviour to others. The study of different faculties, capacities and individual differences has helped him in finding out ways to use them with the utmost coonomy and efficiency thus psychology has helped in the planned cconomy of the modern nations. It has helped to solve problem of abnormals, sub-normals and insane.

kkbhagat May 23, 2020

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Aims of Psychology

Psychology is the positive science of behaviour. It aims at the study of the behaviour, their collection, clarification and comparison and finds out general hypotheses based upon them. Thus the aim of psychology is the study or mart's behaviour Behaviour not only includes the overt activities, but also the inner processes. Thus psychology studies man's physical as well as mental activities. 
            The aim of psychology is not only theoretical but also practical, though the theoretical and the practical works have been specialised by different branches of psychology in different fields. Thus, whereas the theoretical studies aim at finding out general laws regarding behaviour in their own field, the applied psychology aims at finding out the applications of these general laws. Thus psychology not only adds to our knowledge of human nature, but also makes life worth living. Not only does it aim at studying the personality of man, but it also aims at making it more balanced and adjusted.

kkbhagat May 23, 2020

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Branches/Scope of Psychology

      The history of psychology has witnessed ever widening scope of its field. Psychology today does not only study the animal behaviour, but it also studiest that of man in all the stages of his development. Not only does it study differnt type of behaviour but it also compares them and finds out general principles useful in the understanding as well as the control of behaviour. In brief,where there is behaviour, there one finds scope of psychology. A survey of the different contemporary branches of psychology will give a rough picture of its presents scope. Roughly, the wide field of psychology can be divided into the fields of theroretical studies as well as applied psychology.

1. Animal Psychology - Psychology studies animal behaviour. This branch of psychology is known as animal psychology. Some-times it is calledc comparative psychology because it also compares human psychology and animal psychology. Animal psychology is useful for understanding the human behaviour, as well, because there is no absolute gulf between the two. Manye experiments which cannot be performed on men can be easily performed on animals.e.g.no one can study the effect of heredity as Weissman has studied in his experiments on mice. He cut down the tails of mice for generations and concluded that this defect is not inherited even after several generations.

2. Social Psychology- Psychology studies the behaviour of the individual asw well as his behaviour in social situations. The latter has been specialised by a branch of psychology, known as Social Psychology which studies the behaviour of men as members of crowd, groups and audience etc. Hence its knowledge is necessary for the leaders, the generals and the reformers. Social Psychology studies problems, finds out their laws and employs them for the solution of those problems. Thus Social Psychology has been proved to be useful in almost every branch of social life.

3. Folk Psychology- A branch of psychology which studies superstition, mythology, culture, music, art and religion in their psychological aspect,is known as folk psychology. This branch is gradually becoming important in developed countries.

4. Child Psychology - Psychology studies man from birth to death, thus child psychology is an important branch of psychology. It studies the child from the pre-natal stage upto the adolescent stage. It studies the development of the child its behaviour, as well as various aspects of its personality. Thus, it is very useful for the educationists as well as for the parents. It discovers the secrets of the child's world and so gives us an insight to control it as well as to mould it according to accepted social values.

5.Adolescent Psychology - Beyond the scope of child psychology is the adolescent psychology. It studies the man from the age of 12 to 21 years. It studies the physical, menal and social growth of the adolescent individuals. This stage is known as full of stresses and strains. It is a stage when man passes from childhood to adult stage. Hence the knowledge of its laws is very helpful for the guidance of clinics as well as for the parents, teachers and all others who havet to deal with the adolescent.

6. Analytical Psychology - Psychology not only studies the various stages of the development of the individual, but it also analyses his different activities. This field is known as analytical psychology. In this branch of psychology the psychologist analyses the various complex processes into their components, finds out their genesis and the general laws regarding them. One of the branches of the analytical psychology is known as genetic psychology, which studies the species of men and animals from the psychological point of view.

7. Psychology of Individual Differences -While psychology studies the general principles which are universally applicable to the behaviour of mankind, it also studies the individual differences. This field is known as psychology of individual differences. An important branch of this field is the individual psychology which is mainly concerned with the psychological types. An excellent example is the classification that has been attempted by Jung. The psychology of individual differences studies how individuals differ in their personality, intelligence and other important traits. It studies the role of heredity and environment in creating individual differences.

8.Abnormal Psychology- Psychology not only studies the normal behaviour but also the abnormal. It studies different types of psychoses, neuroses and other abnormalities, finds out their causes and general principles and utilises them to cure these abnormalities. This branch of psychology is known as abnormal psychology.

9. Psychology of normal motivation-An important branch of abnormal psychology and psycho-analysis is known as psychology of normal motivation. It studies the conflicts and frustrations and various types of complexes in infancy, childhood, adolescence and adult stage. It also finds how these maladies can be removed and the man becomes a normal and adjusted person in society.

10. Physiological Psychology - Psychology is very close to physiology. It studies physiological processes from the psychological standpoint. This particular branch of psychology is known as Physiological psychology. This includes the study of brain, spinal cord, sense organs, muscles etc. An important contribution of physiological psychology is finding of the relation between psychoses and neuroses.

11. Experimental Psychology - The most important method of contemporary

psychology is the experimental method and we find it to-day in a growing branch of psychology known as experimental psychology. This is one of the most valuable branches of psychology since it uses strictly scientific methods in its study. Experimental psychology studies.external behaviour as well as the internal processes of the different stages of human development as well as the animals. Only those phenomena fall outside its field which cannot be studied in controlled situations. But the scope of experimental psychology is gradually widening with the invention of new tools and instruments for experiments.

12. Developmental Psychology-Psychology is dynamic. It studies man as a dynamic and developing being. Developmental psychology studies the various stages of the development of man, compares the developments of different individuals finds out the causes of the differences and searches for general laws governing them. The study of the development process helps to find out ways to control and reform them.

kkbhagat May 23, 2020

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